Titians Altarpieces
What was the importance of these two
altarpieces for the development of painting
in Venice, both from a stylistic
and iconographic point of view? It has been
said that Titian’s Assunta, which
adorns the high altar, and Pesaro (on the
left aisle of the chapel of the
Immaculate Conception) stand mid-way between the
past and the future of
Venetian painting. This infers that Titian drew on
established traditions
learnt from his masters Bellini and Giorgione, and imbued
his works with a
freshness and inspiration not seen before. Furthermore, it
becomes apparent
that his sensitive construction of the works – considering
the authority of
his patrons – facilitate a depth of interpretation which
highlight both the
sacred and civic concerns of the time. To illustrate
Titian’s progressive
role in Venetian art history, I will draw on Renaissance
documentation, and
contemporary research that notes the stylistic and
iconographic elements of
these altarpieces. In 1568 the Florentine chronicler
Vasari wrote of
Titian, "Titian...who has adorned with great pictures the City
of
Venice...deserves the love and respect of all craftsmen, who ought to
admire
and imitate him in many things. For he is a painter who has
produced...work
which...will live as long as the memory of illustrious men
endures" . This is
a useful starting point for such an investigation: this
representation is valid,
since Vasari had met and spoken to him while writing
the book, and being a
Florentine he wasn’t so susceptible to employing
the Venetian rhetoric which
could tend to be biased The contemporary
chronicler Ludovico Dolce recorded the
shock and criticism the Assunta
attracted when it was first unveiled. Such
controversy points to its
radicalism and supports assertions that it was
influential for developing
artists: "For all [the panel’s grandeur and
awesomeness], the oafish painters
and the foolish masses, who until then had
seen nothing but the dead and cold
works of Giovanni Bellini, of Gentile, and of
Vivarino..., which were
without movement and modelling, grossly defamed the
picture. Then, as envy
cooled and the truth slowly dawned on them, people began
to marvel at the new
style established in Venice by Titian..." There is good
reason to conclude
that the Assunta and Pesaro altarpieces rank amongst the
finest and most
notary of Titian’s works. In his book, The Altarpiece in
Renaissance
Venice, Peter Humfrey claims that the exceptionally large number of
churches
in Venice elevated the prevalence of this style, as they all needed to
be
decorated. The lack of fresco painting (due to the humid climate) meant
more
panel paintings were constructed, and so "Venetian painters tended
to
concentrate their most ambitious efforts...on altar painting" Limitations
of
the investigation The lack of primary documentation from this era hinders
our
ability to place the artwork in its socio-cultural context. When relying
on the
rhetoric of the State-appointed historians, we must consider the bias
that
results from their upholding of the ‘Myth of Venice’. Obviously, the
value
of these to the research question is limited; being contemporary, they
are
unable to describe Titian’s long-term influence on Venetian
painting.
Definition of key terms When analysing artwork from a stylistic
point of view,
all visual (not metaphorical) factors are taken into account.
Issues of
composition, symmetry and asymmetry, colour palette, application of
paint, and
rendering of forms are all relevant. Iconography refers to any
elements of the
painting that can be left open for a religious or sacred
interpretation. These
two points of view are inextricably linked: for
example, the placement (re:
composition, thus stylistic element) of the
Madonna and Child, elevated in the
centre of a devotional painting also has
iconographic references: this was their
traditional position, and portrayed
their roles as intercessors between the
figures below, and God in Heaven
above. In this context, the altarpiece refers
to a painting set behind an
above the altar in a Christian church. Painted
altarpieces might be
accompanied by sculpture, as in the case of Titian’s
Assunta, which
features three free-standing marble figures on the frame. The
term sacra
conversazione refers to the type of composition made popular by
Bellini,
where a group of saints are gathered in a unified space. Any
‘conversation’
between saints is solely spiritual and internal;
paradoxically, as soon as
obvious communication takes place (in the case of
Titian’s Pesaro), the
composition no longer conforms to what constitutes a
sacra conversazione .
Established traditions in altarpiece design Titian was
painting amongst the
turbulent climate of the age of Reformation and the
Counter-Reformation:
this may have influenced his work, endowing it with a
greater sense of drama
and more overt display of emotion which is evident
especially in Assunta.
This was a significant development from the entrenched
Venetian style
established by Bellini: his altarpieces were characteristically
tranquil and
meditive (Humfrey refers to Bellini’s Diletti, S. Giobbe and St
Catherine
of Sienna altarpieces in defining the sacra conversazione). His
style
embodies the Venetian ethos of ‘La Serenissima’. Stylistic developments
in
Assunta and Pesaro altarpieces While depictions of the Assumption
scene had been
painted by such names as Vivarini and Palma Vecchio, Titian’s
subjects are
much more powerfully built and more dynamic in their gestures
than the
relatively angular and timid figures in the earlier altarpieces.
There is a mood
of vivacity and upward movement, driven by the shifts in dark
and light through
the three zones (disciples, Madonna, God and angels). The
viewer’s eye is
arrested by the raised arms of the disciples, the
foreshortening of the
virgin’s body refuses to let the eye rest, until it
reaches the sweeping group
of angels. Rosand affirms the stylistic importance
of this work, in suggesting
that its unveiling heralded the arrival of the
classical High Renaissance in
Venice. Titian’s dramatic gestures and
breadth of form draws comparisons to
the art of Raphael, and in particular,
his Assumption. Some scholars suggest
Titian may have seen preparatory
sketches for this work around the time he
received the commission for Assunta
, in which case the originality of his work
is dubious. However, the fact
that he hadn’t yet undertaken the ‘artist’s
pilgrimage to Rome’ and viewed
the works of Raphael and his contemporaries,
offers credibility in terms of
his artistic innovation. A justification of why
Assunta was not accepted
by the patron, Guardian of the Fransiscan order, Fra
Germano, was because
the human forms are too sensual. A highly rhetorical
passage from a 1910 book
by Charles Ricketts, asserts that "the face of Mary
satisfies us as
expressing ecstasy in a human type" . While being ultimately
subjective, it
sheds light on how people would personally react to it. The
exuberant
vitality would have been frightening and even offensive, to
generations used
to Bellini’s style. The Assunta is notable in combining two
significant
biblical events: the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, and the
Coronation.
The Coronation was a theme most usually represented in a horizontal
format,
yet perhaps this extensive thematic content would have offered more
scope for
drama and innovation when it was to be set in a tall, arched
format.
Infact, when Titian received the commission to construct this
work, it was the
largest altarpiece that had ever been seen in Venice. In the
same way, Pesaro
demonstrates an unorthodox blending of styles: the
altarpiece painting and the
votive portrait style. He transforms the
traditional composition of the sacra
conversazione from one of centrality, to
asymmetry. Rona Goffen supports this
notion, claiming there was "no real
precedent in earlier altar paintings for
this asymmetrical scheme" . The
shift in the Madonna and Child’s positioning
has iconographic ramifications,
as a central position reflects their supreme
role in the relationship with
the saints and patrons. They still dominate the
Pesaro, their elevation
conveys importance, and their split attention (Madonna
looking to the left,
and the Child to the right) is the key to uniting the two
groups. Titian
draws on characteristics of the popular votive picture (paintings
depicting a
patron venerating a saint in a more intimate association) – for
example,
Titian’s Bishop Jacopo Pesaro Presented to St. Peter by Pope
Alexander VI
– which include profile perspectives of subjects, asymmetry, and
inclusion of
things that represent the patron. The advent of x-ray technology
has shown
the extent to which Titian refined, and reconstructed stylistic
elements of
the Pesaro which were originally more Belliniesque in concept. The
discovery
of underlying pentimenti support this claim, and reveal at least two
changes
of plan: the first resembles a Bellini work, with a vaulted
loggia-like
arrangement. The second experimented with a curtain slung across
and a
Corinthian capital, before the final two colossal columns were
executed.
Obviously he maintained an awareness of his teachers and a
connection with the
familiar, yet he presents a notable departure from the
Venetian tradition of the
Quattrocento, in the disjuncture he establishes
between the realm of the church,
and inside the painting. Titian has
successfully reinterpreted the relationship
between the image and the
worshipper, ‘denying access to the observer’, in
contrast to Bellini’s
devotional portraits, where the viewer was able to
connect with the humanity
of the Virgin Mary by her gaze out of the painting.
Iconographic
developments in the Assunta and Pesaro altarpieces Much has been
written
about the role of the columns in the background of the Pesaro
altarpiece.
David Rosand cites historical texts which interprete the columns to
be
architectural symbols of Mary, "the heavenly ladder by which God descends
to
Earth, so that through her, those men who merit it ascend to heaven" If
we
agree with this summation of Mary as the ‘stairway to heaven’, then
these
columns can be seen as iconography, rising up to heaven. This appears
plausible,
since there doesn’t seem to be any indication of a natural
termination to
these columns. Alternatively, the columns could be a direct
illustration of the
text of Ecclesiasticus 24:7, "and my throne is a cloudy
pillar". This has a
special relevance, since other passages from
Ecclesiasticus 24 have been linked
by art historians to the Immaculate
Conception, which is the theme of this
altarpiece. The issue of the
Immaculate Conception – the idea that Mary was
exempt from original sin at
the moment of her conception – was the cause for
much antagonism between the
Fransiscans and the Dominicans, who preferred to
believe that like St John
the Baptist, Mary hadn’t been conceived without sin,
but sanctified in the
womb. Thus, not only are the columns significant
iconography within the
altarpiece, but relate to themes which promote the
Fransiscan theology.
Adversely, Humfrey dismisses any iconographic significance
that these columns
might contribute. "Their purpose is primarily pictorial: to
give greater
structural coherence...and to endow the scene with an aura
of...grandeur."
This alternative appears to supplement the x-ray evidence that
Titian
experimented with a variety of architectural solutions to create a
setting
that would achieve architectural, as well as theological decorum Like
many
devotional scenes that depict the Madonna and Child, there are
many
references to Christ’s destined crucifixion. It should be noted
that
Fransiscan theory concentrates on the Passion, which can be read
here as
evidence of patrons’ concerns being inextricably linked with the
subject
matter of these works. Mary’s gesture towards his raised foot alludes
to his
stigmata and the crucifixion. Titian follows popular depiction of St.
Francis
(patron saint of the Fransiscan order); his open hand alludes to his
stigmata,
yet is also a tool to allow the eye to travel around the
composition. St.
Francis’ position makes him intercessor between the
Pesaro family and Christ.
These allusions to the Passion become explicit
in the depiction of the two putti
in the clouds, who support a large wooden
cross. The extent of the Pesaro’s
iconographic significance can be challenged
with the knowledge of the particular
troubles Titian had to overcome
regarding the placement of the work. The viewer
first encounters the
altarpiece from an angle, approaching the high altar.
Hence, the
composition must accommodate not only this view, but a
full-frontal
perspective. It seems that these conditions would have
challenged Titian’s
creativity, and the question of what stands due to
necessity and what stands as
iconography in this work makes analysis a
complicated issue. With the Assunta,
Goffen suggests that the stylistic
feature of circular forms carries
iconographic relevance. While they unify
the composition within the painting,
the curved architecture of the choir
screen and the apse, they refer
metaphorically to God, "circles being His
geometric equivalent" . The gold
tones prevalent in the work allow for a
similar reading, that golden light
represents His divine illumination. The
light becomes more intense and golden as
we cross the boundary between the
mundane and the sacred realms, reaching its
full density when it reaches God.
This golden light and illumination embodies
Mary’s triumph over sin and
death. The extent to which the role of patronage
inhibited artistic
innovation We have an inhibited ability to interpret works as
reflections of
the artist’s innovation and artistic development since they
were largely
contrived according to the demands of the patrons. In Titian’s
Pesaro,
Jacopo Pesaro’s demands were well documented. The terms of
Titian’s
commission stipulated that he include full-length kneeling portraits
of Jacopo,
his brothers and nephew . In meeting these requirements, this
could perhaps
account for Titian’s unusual composition, and if true, it
negates the
interpretation of significant stylistic innovation. It appears
Pesaro wanted
numerous images represented in his altarpiece, supported by
Ettlinger who
studied the iconography of the columns: "Pesaro...believed that
a successful
integration of all elements could be achieved" . Alongside the
depiction of
the Immaculate Conception (and his veneration of it), the
inclusion of his
family, and emblems which celebrated his illustrious
military career were
involved. The presence of so much diverse symbolism
complicates an
interpretation of the artwork’s iconography, which has been
demonstrated in
the plethora of scholars’ explanations in regard to the
columns in the
background of the Pesaro altarpiece. As a Mendicant friar, Fra
Germano Casale
could not own property, although he is commerated as the
"patron" of the
Assunta . The date of unveiling and his name is inscribed
on the frame, which
sufficiently serves as documentation of the patronage and
commission. Even if
Germano relied on bequests to the Frari to fund the
work, his vested interests
are apparent when we read of his constant
harassing of Titian while it was being
painted. It reinforces the notion
raised with the Pesaro, that the presence of
the patrons places an influence
on the outcome of the painting, so much so that
it enables interpretations
based on the political and social interests of the
patrons. It is the many
possible readings of these works, not only from a
stylistic and iconographic
point of view, that make the Assunta and Pesaro such
enigmatic and monumental
works. In capturing the ideals and beliefs from their
time while exhibiting
such progressive artistic features, they hold great
importance for the
development of painting in Venice.
Bibliography
1. Anderson, J.
‘The Genius of Venice 1500-1600’, in Art International,
vol.27 April/June
1984 p.15-22 2. Ettlinger, H. ‘The Iconography of the
Columns in Titian’s
Pesaro Altarpiece’, in Art Bulletin vol.61, 1979 p.59-67
3. Goffen, R.
Piety and Patronage in Renaissance Venice: Bellini, Titian and
the
Fransiscans, New Haven, Yale (1996) 4. Humfrey, P. The Altarpiece in
Renaissance
Venice, New Haven and London (1993) 5. Licht, F. ‘Titian: The
Majestic Voice
of All Venice’, in Art International no.11 Summer 1990 p.90-93
6. Ricketts, C.
Titian Methuen & Co.Ltd, London, 1910 7. Rosand, D.
Painting in Cinquecento
Venice: Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto, New Haven
and London (1982) 8. Rosenthal,
M. ‘In my view... Titian’s reputation:
the limitations of history’, in
Apollo, Dec. ’93 p.395-8 9. Tietze, H.
Titian: The Paintings and Drawings The
Phaidon Press Ltd, London 1950